Human beings seem to possess an innate abhorrence of submission to authority figures. Even when someone is subjugated to another person through the laws of the nation or the customs of the nation, the person will discover ways to subvert the authority of the person above them. Most of the time, these forms are of passive resistance since they are much less confrontational for the dominant person. Through the study of Murasaki Shikibu genji’s tale and Margaret of Navarre the heptameron as social-historical documents, evidence can be discovered of the limitations imposed on women by laws and social expectations and the means they undertook to overcome those limitations.
The first part of this essay will examine the life of court women in 10th century Heian Japan, and the second part will discuss court women in 16th century France. Though divided by customs, religion, and six hundred years of time, there are many similarities between these Eastern and Western women in their attempts to oppose male authority, along with many differences. In 10th-century Japan, the resistance shown by women was overwhelmingly passive, while in 16th-century France, women displayed more assertiveness towards dominant male figures.
Female code of conduct in courtly life in Japan
Women in medieval Japan had little protection against male domination. The customs of the time required women to submit to men, even to the point of raping them. The men were not afraid of being punished for rape, as evidenced by Genji’s attitude:
Quickly and lightly, he carried her down to the gallery and closed the door. Her surprise pleased him immensely. Trembling, he called for help. “It won’t do you any good, I’m always allowed to go my way. Just shut up, if you want, please.” (Shikibu 137-38)
Although the ‘misty moon lady’ is “upset” by Genji’s attack, she is more concerned with not having Genji think that she “wants good manners” (Shikibu 138). The implication is that women are expected to give their bodies away to men who want them as a show of hospitality.
The personality characteristics that women were expected to have can be discerned through the specific qualities that Genji praises in this novel. The ‘lady of the evening faces’ is the first woman mentioned in the novel with whom Genji is extremely in love. Genji describes it like this:
He was of an extraordinarily gentle and calm nature. Although there was a certain vagueness about her, and indeed an almost childlike quality, it was clear that she knew something about men. She didn’t seem to be from a very good family. What was it about her, he wondered over and over again, that he was so drawn to her? (Shikibu 41)
What Genji finds so attractive in the lady of the night faces is her flexibility and desire to please, her tendency to submit to the “most outrageous demands” (Shikibu 42). These are the characteristics for which the women of the Japanese court were praised.
An extreme example of women being objectified can be discovered through Genji’s actions in relation to the Murasaki boy. When Genji first sees Murasaki, she is about ten years old. She is struck by her resemblance to Fujitsubo, her father’s consort whom Genji has desired for a long time. Genji then decides that Murasaki must “stand in the place of the one whom she so resembled” (Shikibu 72). Although the girl is already betrothed to another man, Genji is determined to take her “to her house and make it her ideal of hers” from her (Shikibu 74).
When Genji learns that Murasaki’s father, Prince Hyōbu, will soon be taking Murasaki into his home, Genji acts quickly. Not caring about how others would perceive his actions, he kidnaps the girl from her guardians and hides her from her father in her house in Nijō. Murasaki is understandably terrified by all of this. Genji tells him:
You must not sulk, now, and make me unhappy. Would I have done all this for you if I weren’t a good man? Ladies must do as they are told. (Shikibu 103)
Genji’s ‘lesson’ for Murasaki is that her fear and unhappiness are nothing more than being malevolent, that ladies are supposed to do what men tell them and strive to make men happy, and that kidnapping her is not something bad, but it shows how much Genji cares for her and is willing to do for her. Genji informs Murasaki that she should think of him as her teacher; in this way Genji begins to instruct Murasaki in the characteristics and achievements that his ‘ideal’ woman would possess.
Through Genji’s character, one can discern personality traits that were not desirable for women to have. Genji resents the “chill” in women (Shikibu 36), women who are “incredibly energetic in [their] demands” (Shikibu 48), and those displaying “jealous manners” (Shikibu 48). Audacity in matters of sexual intercourse was also considered improper female conduct. It is significant that the only female character who openly displays her “lady” of sixty years with “dark and muddy” eyelids and “rough and stringy” hair (Shikibu 124). Because Naishi enjoys sex and is not ashamed to hide it, she is also described as “undemanding” with her sexual partners (Shikibu 124), and “inexhaustibly loving” (Shikibu 126). Genji doesn’t like Naishi’s aggressiveness and impatience (Shikibu 127), but being Genji he still finds Naishi suitable for his ‘nightly wanderings’.
Female resistance to the Japanese code of conduct
Despite female submissiveness being a pervasive cultural trait, women in medieval Japan managed to find some ways to resist the total dominance of men. These forms can be characterized as passive resistance, for example, verbal reproaches, feigning illness and misunderstanding, aloof behavior, and withdrawing from men. In genji’s talemost of the female resistance is due to Genji’s sexual advances or excesses.
Through Genji’s wife, Aoi, one can understand the extreme of Genji’s sexual behavior. Being busy with her numerous affairs, Genji does not spend much time visiting her wife at her father’s Sanjō mansion, a fact she does not allow him to forget when he comes to visit her. Aoi exhibits aloof behavior towards Genji to express her disgust at his neglect of her, as seen in the following conversation between them:
Genji: It would be nice, I sometimes think, if you could be a bit more of a wife. I’ve been very ill, and I’m hurt, but not really surprised, that you didn’t ask about my health.
Aoi: Like the pain, perhaps, of waiting for a visitor who doesn’t show up?
Genji: You rarely talk to me, and when you do you say such nasty things. ‘A visitor who doesn’t come’: that’s not an appropriate way to describe a husband, and indeed, it’s not courteous. I try this approach and try, hoping to break through, but you seem intent on defending all approaches. Well, one of these years, maybe, if I live long enough. (Shikibu 83, 84)
Genji begins this conversation by trying to prove to his wife by her cold behavior towards him, not being very happy that he came to see her. She, in turn, reproaches him for her negligence in comparing him to a “visitor” instead of a husband. Aoi resists Genji in the only way available to her, that of verbal rebukes and withholding displays of affection from Genji.
The lady on Akashi’s shore employs another method of passive resistance to her father and Genji; she pretends to be sick and tries to isolate herself from Genji. When Genji first begins courting her, which her father actively promotes, the lady is initially reluctant to answer Genji’s letter, saying that she “doesn’t feel well” (Shikibu 296). After being pressured by her father to answer, she pretends not to understand Genji’s poem: “How can you feel sorry for someone you don’t know?” (Shikibu 297). She reads her letter literally and responds to it, not wanting to acknowledge the letter as an attempt at flirtation and seduction. After her father arranges for Genji to visit her, unknown to her, she flees to “an inner room” and barricades the door (Shikibu 303). Although Genji does not make his way through the door, in some way not mentioned in the novel, he manages to gain access to the inner room where the lady is hiding. There Genji prevails over her (Shikibu 303). For Genji, this encounter with the Akashi lady is a “contest of wills” in that he would “look pretty foolish” if he loses to the lady (Shikibu 303). The female conquest is, then, a matter of honor among the men of the court.
Some women go to extremes to resist male sexual advances, such as when Fujitsubo enters the nunnery to escape Genji. For Genji, Fujitsubo is the paragon of “sublime beauty” (Shikibu 26). But unfortunately, she belongs to her father, the Emperor. Genji doesn’t pay attention to that; With the help of one of his ladies, he gains access to Fujitsubo’s room. Fujitsubo is “determined that there will be no other meeting” between her and Genji and is “shocked” and “distraught”.[ed]”that Genji has returned to her (Shikibu 86). She tries to make Genji leave, but these efforts “delight[ ]him while causing embarrassment as well (Shikibu 86). However, Genji still gets away with it, Fujitsubo becomes pregnant, and she passes off the child as the Emperor’s son and Genji’s brother.
After the death of Genji’s father, Genji tries to rekindle the romance with Fujitsubo. She did everything she could to avoid Genji and even “commissioned religious services in the hope of freeing herself from Genji’s attentions” (Shikibu 202). Unfortunately, her elusiveness sparks more interest in Genji. Fujitsubo is unable to convince Genji to leave and begins to experience “chest pains” and “blackouts” (Shikibu 203). She begins to feel better later, when she believes that Genji is gone, but as soon as he appears before her again, she sinks to the ground in “sheer terror” (Shikibu 204).
Genji tries to win Fujitsubo’s compassion by stating that he would die of love for her (Shikibu 205). Genji feels that Fujitsubo’s conduct is “cruelty” (Shikibu 207) and decides to make her “feel sorry for him” (Shikibu 206). He then retreats to her house in Nijō, where he refuses to write to her and sulks. But Fujitsubo is not so filled with pity that she would submit to Genji; instead, she decides to renounce the title of empress from her and “become a nun” (Shikibu 206). She realizes that this is the only path available to completely escape Genji’s sexual advances.
While court women in Heian Japan did not enjoy much freedom from male authority, they used every means available to resist complete subjugation. Women in 16th century France fared little better than Oriental women. In the six hundred years since the writing of genji’s tale to the writing of the heptameron, the women had made little progress in their liberation. Women in France were expected to serve their fathers and husbands just like Japanese women, but in the heptameron women are portrayed as more aggressive in protesting against male abuse.
Bibliography
Navarre, Margarita de. the heptameron. Trans. PA Chilton. London: Penguin Books, 1984.
Shikibu, Murasaki. genji’s tale. Trans. Edward G. Seiden sticker. New York: Random House, 1990.